Model II Theory-in-Use

Definition

Model II is an alternative theory of action based on three governing values: (1) generate valid information, (2) create conditions for free and informed choice, (3) foster internal commitment to the choice and constant monitoring to detect and correct errors. Rather than advocating unilaterally and making untested attributions, Model II actors share their reasoning and welcome inquiry into their views. They test their assumptions and invite others to do the same. They create the conditions for genuine dialogue in which different viewpoints can be explored without fear of punishment or ridicule.

In the Book

Argyris contrasts Model II with Model I throughout the book but develops it most fully in Part II. When a CIO recognizes that his subordinates are making untested attributions about line managers, a Model II approach would involve asking them to provide concrete data: "What is it that they say or do that leads you to conclude that they do not know what they want?" or "Have you tested your assumptions about their views of us? If so, what did you say to the line?" This invites inquiry, testing, and valid information rather than accepting untested claims.

In the consulting firm example, Model II would involve consultants saying to a difficult case team leader: "I notice that I am hesitant to speak up when I disagree with the project direction. I want to understand whether that's because I lack confidence in my views or because I'm concerned about how you'll respond. I'd like to discuss this directly with you." This reveals reasoning transparently and invites the other person's perspective rather than covering up the hesitation and acting as if it didn't exist.

Why It Matters

Model II is not presented as idealistic or unachievable, but as necessary for generating sustainable change and learning. When advice is given within a Model II framework—with transparent reasoning, invitation for testing, and genuine commitment rather than compliance—it becomes actionable. Argyris's point is not that Model II is easy or natural (it runs counter to deep cultural conditioning), but that it is the only framework consistent with authentic internal commitment and organizational learning. Organizations that develop even small groups capable of Model II thinking create islands of genuine learning and change in a sea of defensive Model I routines.