Model I Virtues vs. Model II Virtues

Definition

Virtues like caring, respect, honesty, strength, and integrity can be enacted from either Model I (defensive) or Model II (productive) reasoning, with each producing opposite effects. Model I virtues aim to protect the self and avoid upsetting others but produce manipulation and distance. Model II virtues aim to enhance others' capacity for self-reflection and genuine choice while inviting inquiry into one's own reasoning.

In the Book

Argyris presents a detailed comparison table (Box 1.1, Chapter 1) showing how the same virtue translates into fundamentally different actions under Model I versus Model II. For example:

Caring and Support: Model I caring means "give approval and praise to make others feel good about themselves; reduce hurt by telling them how much you care and agreeing that others acted improperly." Model II caring means "increase the others' capacity to confront their own ideas, create a window into their own mind, face their unsurfaced assumptions, biases, and fears."

Honesty: Model I honesty means "tell no lies; tell all you think and feel" but carefully frame it to minimize threat. Model II honesty means "encourage yourself and others to say what they know yet fear to say; minimize distortion and cover-up."

Strength: Model I strength is "advocate your position in order to win; hold your position in the face of advocacy; feeling vulnerable is weakness." Model II strength is "advocate your position and combine it with inquiry and self-reflection; feeling vulnerable while encouraging inquiry is a sign of strength."

The paradox is that organizations espouse Model II virtues (openness, honesty, integrity) yet practice Model I virtues, then expect Model II consequences. Managers tell employees they care (Model I framing) but produce feelings of manipulation because the actual actions—framed to protect the manager—prevent genuine dialogue.

Why It Matters

This distinction exposes why espoused organizational values so often diverge from lived experience. Well-intentioned leaders who claim to value honesty and openness while using Model I theories-in-use are not hypocrites but are trapped in a coherent system where the virtues they espouse cannot be enacted through the reasoning they use. Changing organizational culture requires changing which version of virtue is enacted—not just articulating better values.